Transmutation of elements

Question

Was it found by Rutherford and Chadwick that oxygen and carbon cannot be transmuted by bombarding them with alpha particles???


I searched internet and got this one.

Russell was able to demonstrate the transmutation of gases in the Bloomfield, New Jersey research laboratory at the Westinghouse Lamp Company on Sept. 30, 1927. Transmutation of hydrogen and oxygen to nitro- gen, and, nitrogen to oxygen and hydrogen was accomplished.
See reference
http://padrak.com/ine/NEN_4_11_3.html

Early Atomic Models

The idea that all matter is made of very small indivisible particles is very old.

Robert Boyle’s study of compression and expansion of air brings out the idea that air is made of tiny particles with lot of empty space between the particles.

The smallest unit of an element which carries all the properties of the element is called an atom.

Experiments on discharge tube, measurement of e/m by Thomson etc. established the existence of negatively charged electrons in the atoms.

Because atoms are electrically neutral, a search for the positive charge inside the atom was started.

Thomson’s Model of the atom

Thomson (1898) suggested that the atom is a positively charged solid sphere in which electrons are embedded in sufficient number to create a neutral atom. This model of the atom could explain why only negatively charged particles are being emitted when a metal is heated. This model was also useful to explain the formation of ions and ionic compounds.

Lenard's Suggestion on Atomic Structure

Lenard observed that cathode rays are passing through thin material without any deviation. According to him, this was so because, there is a lot of empty space in atoms. Hence the positive charged particles are also tiny like electrons.

Hydrogen Spectra

If hydrogen gas is enclosed in a sealed tube and heat to high temperatures, it emits radiation. If this radiation is passed through a prsim, components are different wavelengths get deviated by different amounts and we get the hydrogen spectra on a screen. In the spectra of hydrogen atom, it is observed that light of wavelength 656.3 nm and then light of wave length 486.1 nm are present. Hydrogen atoms do not emit any radiation between 656.3 nm and 486.1 nm. Similarly radiation is observed at 434.1 nm and 4202.nm.

In the invisible region also, there is radiation emitted by the hydrogen atom at discrete wavelengths.

The wavelengths nicely fit the equation

1/λ = R [1/n² - 1/m²]

where R = 1.09737*10^7 m^-1.
n and m are integers with m>n.

The spectrum in the ultraviolet region is called Lyman series and you get the series by setting n = 1.

The hydrogen spectrum in the visible region is called Balmer series and you get the series by setting n = 2.

The hydrogen spectrum in infrared region is called Paschen series and you get the series by setting n= 3.

Rutherford's Model

Rutherford experimented with alpha rays or particles. When he bombarded gold foils with alpha particles, Many went without deviation, some had some deviation and some were deflected by more than 90 and came back. Hence he made a conclusion that there was a particle with a mass equivalent to alpha particle inside the atom. The mass of an atom is concentrated in this particle.

The size of this particle was also estimated by Rutherford. Its linear size is 10 fermi ( 1 fermi is equal to 1 femtometre = 10^-15 m).

Rutherford proposed that the atom contains a positively charged tiny particle called nucleus. It contains the entire mass of the atom. Outside this nucleus, at some distance, electrons move around. The positive of charge of nucleus is exactly equal to the negative charge of the electrons of the atom.

Because electrons are very very light compared to the nucleus, due to heat only electrons come out.

Movement of electrons is to brought in and the coulomb force between the nucleus and the electron is assumed to provide only centripetal force to make the electron rotate in a circular motion.

Difficulties with Rutherford’s Model

Rutherford’s model assumes that the electron rotates around the nucleus. Maxwell’s equations of a electromagnetism show that accelerated electron must continuously emit electromagnetic radiation. But a hydrogen does not emit radiation at ground level energy or normal energy. It emits radiation only when heated. Also, if it emits radiation it will lose energy and the radius of its circular motion will decreases and finally it will fall into the nucleus. Hence, the atomic model proposed by Rutherford needs modification. Bohr proposed such modifications.